Geography and History
Geography
The Arab Republic of Egypt occupies the northeastern corner of the African continent and the Sinai Peninsula. It has an area of about 390,540 square miles (1,011,500 square kilometers), including the 23,440 square miles (60,710 square kilometers) of the Sinai. Ninety-nine percent of the Egyptian population lives on only 3.5 percent of the land. Most of them are in the Nile River valley and large, fertile delta of the river. Egypt is bordered on the south by the Republic of the Sudan and on the west by Libya. Its northern coast is on the Mediterranean Sea, and its eastern coasts are on the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aqaba, between Sinai and Saudi Arabia. The Gulf of Suez and the Suez Canal separate African Egypt from Sinai. In northern Sinai Egypt's border with Israel was fixed in 1979 by a peace treaty, though the disputed territory did not return to Egyptian sovereignty until 1982.
The Land and Climate
The headwaters of the Nile River are in the highlands of East Africa. The Nile flows northward across the Sudan and enters Egypt near Wadi Halfa. It is 4,130 miles (6,650 kilometers) long, with 960 miles (1,545 kilometers) in Egypt. Annual flooding is a natural feature of the Nile. Fed by summer rains in the highlands, the flood travels northward, reaching Egypt in August.
The Upper Nile is confined to a narrow valley that is no more than 2 miles (3 kilometers) wide. Outcrops of resistant granite rock form stretches of cascades and rapids called cataracts. The First Cataract is at Aswan, the only one in Egypt. A dam was built here in 1902 to help control the floodwaters for irrigation. Four other cataracts are located upstream of Aswan in the Sudan.
The Aswan High Dam is located upstream of the original dam. Construction began in January 1960 and was completed in July 1970. The high dam created Lake Nasser, the largest artificial lake in the world. It extends for 350 miles (560 kilometers) southward to the Third Cataract and averages 6 miles (10 kilometers) wide. The high dam makes possible the large-scale storage and use of Nile water independent of natural floods, and it provides Egypt with low-cost hydroelectric power.
Between Aswan and Cairo the Nile Valley widens into a plain ranging in width from 6 to 9 miles (10 to 15 kilometers). The delta of the Nile begins near Cairo, where the river separates into the Damietta branch on the west and the Rosetta on the east. The delta, which contains about 8,500 square miles (22,000 square kilometers), has numerous small waterways and canals. At its northern edge several large shallow lakes have formed as the delta continues to expand into the Mediterranean. The largest of these is El Manzala, which is between Damietta and Port Said.
West of the Nile the Western Desert is one of the world's driest areas. It is a low-lying plateau that gradually rises from a narrow coastal plain to an elevation of more than 3,300 feet (1,000 meters) in the southwest. In the Libyan Desert large areas are covered by shifting sand dunes. Several large depressions have been hollowed out of the limestone and sandstone by wind erosion. The oases of Bahariya, Dakhla, Farafra, and Siwa and the great oasis of Kharga have underground water supplies that support permanent agriculture. A branch of the Nile, the Bahr Yusef, flows through a gap in the Nile's western cliffs to water the town of El Faiyum. In Wadi Natrun northwest of Cairo and the Qattara Depression, the water is salty. Located near Siwa on the edge of the Libyan Plateau, the Qattara is 437 feet (133 meters) below sea level.
The area between the Nile River and the Red Sea is the Arabian, or Eastern, Desert. It is a rugged, heavily dissected plateau with elevations of more than 3,300 feet (1,000 meters). Along the Red Sea coast, Jebel, or Mount, Shayib is 7,178 feet (2,188 meters) above sea level. The highest point in Egypt is in the Musa Mountains of southern Sinai, where Jebel Katherina reaches 8,655 feet (2,638 meters). In the north is the Sinai Desert, which extends to the coast between the Suez Canal and Israel.
Egypt has an arid climate. Alexandria has the highest rainfall, with a mean of 7.4 inches (18.8 centimeters) annually. Other parts of the Mediterranean coast receive even less rainfall, with only 2.5 inches (6.4 centimeters) annually at Port Said. Most rain falls in the winter, none in the summer. The mean annual temperature is 69° F (20° C), reaching a high of 80° F (27° C) in the summer.
Cairo is a desert capital. It receives slightly less than 1 inch (2.5 centimeters) of rainfall annually, and the mean annual temperature is 71° F (22° C). In the spring and summer early morning fogs on the Nile Delta provide some additional moisture. The rest of Egypt has only a few centimeters of rainfall annually. Most of the year is hot and dry, and periodic droughts extending over several years are common. Aswan, for example, has a mean annual rainfall of 0.2 inch (0.5 centimeter) and a temperature of 80° F (27° C) with a high of 94° F (34° C) in the summer.
During the spring, hot dry khamsin winds blow northward from the Sahara across Egypt to the Mediterranean coast. The khamsin, which often produces sandstorms, can last for several days, destroying crops. Egypt has no forests and only a few permanent grasslands for pasture. At best the deserts support sparse drought-resistant scrub vegetation.
People
Egypt's population is about 48.5 million. The average annual rate of growth is 1.7 percent. In the delta and valley of the Nile, densities reach 3,243 persons per square mile (1,252 per square kilometer). About 49 percent of the population live in cities. The majority of Egyptians live in rural agricultural villages, some of which have 20,000 or more people.
Egypt's largest cities are Cairo, the capital, and Alexandria. Together they contain about two thirds of the urban population. Cairo and its suburbs occupy both banks of the Nile just south of the delta. It is the largest city in Africa. Greater Cairo was estimated to have 10 million people in the mid-1980s. Giza is its largest suburb. Alexandria, the chief seaport, had about 3 million. Fifteen other cities, most located in the delta and the valley of the Nile, had populations of 100,000 or more. The Suez Canal cities of Port Said, Ismailia, and Suez, which were abandoned during the 1967 war with Israel, have been rebuilt.
Most Egyptians are Hamitic Arabs. They are descendants of the Hamites of ancient Egypt and of the Arabs who migrated to Egypt after the Muslim conquests of the 7th century. The Nubians, who are related to the Berber tribes of North Africa, are located south of Aswan. They were resettled in new villages near Kom Ombo when Lake Nasser flooded their homeland. A few Europeans, primarily Armenians and Greeks, live in cities. Most are in Alexandria.
About 86 percent of the Egyptians, including Nubians, are Sunni Muslims. Islam is the state religion and the basis for Egyptian law. The largest minority is made up of members of the Coptic church, one of the oldest Christian churches. The Copts, who are also descended from the Hamites, number about 6 million, or 13.5 percent of the total population. Egypt also has about 250,000 other Christians, and a small Jewish community remains in Cairo.
Arabic is the official language. Although it is spoken by all Egyptians, there are many dialects. Classical Arabic is used in printed materials and in the schools. Through radio and television the government is attempting to develop a vernacular Arabic as the common language. Educated Egyptians use English and French as second languages. French-language publications have wide circulation in Cairo and Alexandria. The Coptic language, related to ancient Egyptian, is used only in church services. The Nubian dialect, while still spoken, is no longer written.
Economy
Major segments of Egypt's economy are controlled by the government. Most commercial and industrial companies are either state-owned or are run under government supervision. Only agricultural land and urban real estate are relatively free of government control. President Gamal Abdel Nasser instituted a centrally planned socialist economy. His successor, Anwar el-Sadat, encouraged foreign investment and private enterprise. Increased aid came from petroleum-rich Arab states, primarily the Gulf Organization for the Development of Egypt.
After the 1979 peace treaty with Israel, most Arab countries withdrew economic and political support from Egypt. President Hosni Mubarak reestablished ties with Arab countries and instituted policies to increase exports, particularly of petroleum, and private investment.
From 1970 to 1980 Egypt's gross domestic product (GDP) grew at an average annual rate of 8.1 percent. Agriculture contributed 19 percent, mining 17 percent, and manufacturing, wholesale and retail trade, and services 12 to 13 percent each. Because of limited opportunities in Egypt, many professionals and skilled workers took jobs in other Arab countries, primarily the Gulf States and Libya.
Agriculture in Egypt depends almost entirely on irrigation from the Nile. Barrages and dams on the Nile, especially the Aswan High Dam, allow water to be stored for use when the river level is low. Canals distribute it where it is needed throughout the year. Under perennial irrigation, a field may yield several crops each year. Cotton, rice, corn (maize), and sorghum are grown in summer. Barley, wheat, and beans are winter crops. Citrus fruits and vegetables are grown on the Mediterranean coast. Although enough fruits and vegetables are grown for the Egyptian people, only 38 percent of the demand for wheat is met. Egypt imports about half of its food supplies, primarily wheat and flour.
Three quarters of Egypt's agricultural income is from cotton and rice. Cotton and cotton products account for 23 percent of its export trade. Egypt produces about one third of the world's long-staple cotton. The area planted in cotton, however, has declined by half since 1968, and exports have been limited. Rice, fruits, and vegetables are also export crops. Sugarcane is grown to produce sugar for Egypt. Most cattle are used as draft animals, and sheep and goats are raised for wool and hair. Despite recent attempts to improve livestock husbandry, Egypt is a net importer of meat.
Energy and Natural Resources
Egypt depends on fossil fuels and hydroelectric power for its energy supplies. In the late 1970s petroleum supplied the majority of the energy and hydroelectric power, 20 percent. Other renewable resources--such as crop residues, animal wastes, and wood--supplied 14 percent of the total energy consumed. Industry used 48 percent of the energy; residential, commercial, and municipal, 32 percent; and transportation, 14 percent. Only 6 percent was for agriculture and irrigation.
Egypt has the capacity to generate 5,610 million kilowatt hours. Two thirds is generated by hydroelectric plants, most at the Aswan High Dam. Power plants that burn petroleum produce most of the rest. These facilities are near Cairo and Alexandria and on the Nile Delta. High-voltage transmission lines link the Aswan hydroelectric plants with Cairo.
Crude oil provided about 60 percent of Egypt's export revenues in the early 1980s, helping the nation to remain financially independent of its Arab neighbors. Petroleum exports have increased since 1976, with crude oil production reaching 860,000 million barrels per day in 1984. The main fields are in the southern Gulf of Suez and adjacent coastal areas of the Arabian Desert and the Sinai. The offshore fields of El Morgan, Ramadan, July, October, and Belayim accounted for about 90 percent of the total crude oil production. In the Western Desert are the major fields of El 'Alamein, Razzak, and Abu Gharadiq. Large new reserves were found as the Egyptian government encouraged exploration and made concessions.
Natural gas is produced from five fields. Located at the edge of the delta, the Abu Madi field supplies gas to Tanta and Abu Qir, to Alexandria. Cairo (Helwan) is supplied by Abu Gharadiq, which is 124 miles (200 kilometers) to the west. In addition, two offshore fields provide a quarter of total production. Egypt uses all of the natural gas it produces, and demand is growing rapidly.
Manganese, phosphates, iron ore, and coal are in the western Sinai. Iron ore is also mined near Aswan, and large deposits have been found in Bahariya. Phosphates are mined in the Nile Valley and near Safaga in the Arabian Desert. Chromium, lead, asbestos, gypsum, granite, and talc are also mined. Limestone comes from the cliffs along the Nile.
Education
Illiteracy is one of Egypt's most severe problems. Although elementary schooling is compulsory, an estimated 55 percent of the population is illiterate.
Secondary-school graduates may take examinations for entrance to universities, or they may attend technical institutes specializing in agriculture, commerce, and industry. Egypt has 13 independent universities. The six major state universities are coeducational. The largest of these is the University of Cairo at Giza, founded as the Egyptian University in 1908. Universities were opened at Alexandria in 1942 and at Asyut in 1957. Ain Shams University, incorporating several other schools near Cairo, was established in 1950. There are also state universities at Helwan, Mansura, and Tanta.
One of the world's oldest centers of Islamic education is El Azhar University in Cairo. Shortly after El Azhar Mosque was built in 972, it had one of the leading academies in the Muslim world. Since 1961 it has also provided secular education. The American University in Cairo was founded in 1919, and the Suez Canal University was established in Ismailia in 1976.
Government
The Arab Republic of Egypt is governed under the 1971 constitution. Islam is the state religion, and Islamic jurisprudence is the basis of Egyptian law. Arabic is the official language. The constitution provides for a strong presidency and a unicameral, or one-house, legislature--the People's Assembly. About half of the members of the assembly must be farmers and workers. Members are elected for five-year terms by direct universal suffrage. The president has extensive executive powers. He is nominated by at least one third of the members of the People's Assembly, approved by at least two thirds of them, and elected by popular referendum.
From 1962 to 1977 the Arab Socialist Union was the only legal political organization in Egypt. Political parties had been abolished in 1953. In 1976, however, groups within the union were allowed to support candidates. Political parties were legalized in 1977. The National Democratic party replaced the Arab Socialist party as the majority, and the Socialist Labor party formed the official opposition.
In 1979 the People's Assembly was expanded from 350 to 392 members, ten of whom the president appointed. In the 1984 elections new laws required parties to receive at least 8 percent of the vote in order to be represented, and the number of seats was increased. In 1990 elections the principal electoral change was to move to voting for individual candidates rather than party lists. The Assembly has 444 members chosen from 222 constituencies and 10 members appointed by the president.
The National Democratic party continued to dominate Egyptian politics. Its strongest opposition since Egypt became a republic came from the New Wafd party. The other independent parties were forced to form a coalition in order to gain more than 8 percent of the vote.
By Gary L. Fowler, Chairman and Associate Professor of Geography, University of Illinois at Chicago. Excerpted from Compton's Interactive World Atlas, 1997 Edition.
History
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